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Trial (1999/ 2009). ―Reflections‖. Are These Our Lives? . Seattle: Panic. Williams, Rhian (2013). The Poetry Tool Kit: The Essential Guide to Studying Poetry. London: Bloomsbury Academy. Yemin, Dan (2011, May 23/ 24). Telephone Interview. Gerfried Ambrosch Independent Researcher Vienna The Significance of Racial Terms in Sinclair Lewis’s Kingsblood Royal and its Translations into German, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian Janko Trupej Racial terms play an important role in the character development and the depiction of racial relations in Kingsblood Royal, a novel addressing the struggles of African Americans in the pre-Civil Rights Movement era; therefore, shifts in translating these terms, especially the numerous racial slurs, may result in shifts on the macrostructural level of the text, and thus somewhat alter the interpretive potential of this literary work. The article addresses the extent to which this is true for the translations into German, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian. The translations of all the instances of a particular racial term are compared, shifts are categorized and examples of particular categories of shifts are provided. The strategies for translating racial terms are compared with one another, the general characteristics of a translation into a particular language are established and the possible reasons for the translation strategy are discussed. The results show substantial differences between the three translations, which may have been affected by the attitude towards the acceptability of offensive language in the given culture, the contemporary political situation, as well as the translator‘s personal experiences with racism. 1. Introduction Racial terms have long been a delicate subject in societies that have significant experience with racism and where works of fiction often contain racial slurs. This is particularly true for the United States of America, where the acceptability of several terms for black people has changed over time, which has led to many literary works (including classics) being challenged on account of their alleged racism (see Karolides 2006; Sova AAA - Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik Band 42 (2017) · Heft 1 Gunter Narr Verlag Tübingen Janko Trupej 122 2006; Karolides/ Bald/ Sova 2011). Literature addressing racial issues has attracted some research attention in the field of translation studies (see, e.g., Fernández López 2000; Lavoie 2004, 2007; Kujawska-Lis 2008; Weissbrod 2008; Trupej 2015c); however, this research was primarily focused on the translation of explicitly racist discourse rather than racial terminology. The present article 1 will compare the strategies for translating the terms for black people in Sinclair Lewis's 1947 novel Kingsblood Royal into Serbo-Croatian 2 , German and Slovenian. The text was translated into the three languages within five years of its original publication and has not been retranslated since. It was translated into Serbo-Croatian by Nada Ćurčija-Prodanović and published in Belgrade by Prosveta in 1950; the translation was reprinted several times, most recently in 2004 3 . Since Serbo-Croatian was the lingua franca in the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, this translation was also read in the other republics of the federation. The German translation by Rudolf Frank was first published in Zürich by Steinberg Verlag in 1951, and later by various publishing houses in both the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic; it was also distributed in Austria 4 . The Slovenian translation by Janez Gradišnik was published in Ljubljana by Državna založba Slovenije in 1952, but it has never been reprinted 5 . The analysis of the three translations will thus enable a comparison of how the translators‘ 1 Part of the research for this article was conducted during a post-doctoral research stay at the University of Tübingen in 2015, which was made possible by a grant from the DAAD. 2 In modern linguistics, Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian are widely perceived as different varieties of the same language; from the middle of the 19 th century, to the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991, the language was termed Serbo-Croatian. 3 Nada Ćurčija-Prodanović (1923-1992) was born in Banja Luka but moved to Belgrade after World War II. In addition to being a painter, she was a prolific translator into both Serbo-Croatian and English. Among her translations were works by Conrad, Lewis, Osborne, Shaw and Wilde. She received an award from the Serbian Translators' Guild for her life‘s work (Hawkesworth 1992). 4 Rudolf Frank (1886-1979) worked as a theatre director in post-World War I Germany, but because he was Jewish he began to encounter difficulties after Hitler came to power. By the time he was stripped of his citizenship in 1939, he had already immigrated to Switzerland, where translating (Steinbeck, Wright, Wolfe, Buck, etc.) became his main source of income. In the decades after the War, he received several honours, including the Federal Cross of Merit (N.N. n.d.). 5 Janez Gradišnik (1917-2009), one of the most renowned Slovenian translators, mostly translated from English (Hemingway, Twain, Joyce, Kipling, Huxley, London, etc.), German (Mann, Hesse, Böll, Musil, Kafka, etc.) and French (Verne, Malraux, Camus, etc.). Furthermore, he served as editor-in-chief of a cultural magazine, authored several works of fiction, as well as books about the Slovenian language, and devoted considerable time to translation criticism. He was the first person to receive the lifetime achievement Prešeren Award primarily for translating (Trupej 2014b). The Significance of Racial Terms in Sinclair Lewis’s Kingsblood Royal 123 decisions with regard to racial terminology may have influenced the perception of Kingsblood Royal across not only three languages, but also several cultures with distinct political and social systems. The narrative revolves around Neil Kingsblood, a middle-class World War II veteran from the Midwest, who discovers that one of his ancestors was black. Subsequently, the protagonist begins to question the racist views that he had previously shared with a large part of contemporary American society, and as time goes on, he starts to associate with African Americans, and increasingly begins to identify as black himself. After publicly disclosing the truth about his racial background, Kingsblood loses his lower-management position in a bank, his friends and acquaintances start treating him differently, and his neighbours try to force him to sell his house, eventually even threatening him and his family with physical violence. By our count, 25 different terms for African Americans are used 1072 times altogether in the source text; these play a significant role in the characterization and the depiction of the relationships between characters, as well as the relations between races as a whole. The potential for interpreting the novel may thus be somewhat altered in the case of shifts, which can be defined as ―changes which occur or may occur in the process of translating‖ (Bakker/ Koster/ van Leuven-Zwart 2009: 269) or as ―[a]ll that appears as new with respect to the original, or fails to appear where it might have been expected‖ (Popovič 1970; qtd. in Bakker/ Koster/ van Leuven-Zwart 2009: 271). All the translations of a certain term for black people are therefore analysed, and the shifts in denotative and connotative meaning are categorized using some of the categories proposed by Kitty van Leuven-Zwart (1989, 1990) and introducing other categories 6 . 2. Terms for black people in American English, German, Serbo- Croatian and Slovenian The negative vocabulary for black people in English (particularly in American English) is extremely rich: the online Racial Slur Database lists more than 600 slurs. The term ‗nigger‘ is the most notorious amongst them and has been offensive for several centuries (see, e.g., Kennedy 2003: 4-5; Asim 2007: 11; Hill 2008: 51) 7 . ‗Negro‘ and ‗colored‘ were 6 See the Appendix for the list of all the translations of a particular racial term. Lists with all the references are available in the electronic attachment to the article at the following web address: https: / / sites.google.com/ site/ jankotrupej/ home/ bibliografija/ electronic-attachment-janko-trupej-aaa. 7 The relation between the term ‗nigger‘ and other somewhat less offensive slurs can be colourfully illustrated by a statement from segregationist Leander Perez (1891- Janko Trupej 124 long the standard terms (Hill 2008: 51), but in the second part of the 20 th century these gradually began to be replaced by ‗African American‘ and ‗black‘ as the most politically correct terms (Rattansi 2007: 116) 8 . The term Nigger also exists and has a negative connotation in German; until the latter part of the 20 th century, the most common German terms for black people were Neger, generally used for those with darker skin (Arndt/ Hamann 2012: 650; see also Arndt 2012: 654) and Farbiger/ farbig, used for those of mixed ancestry (Sow 2012a: 684) 9 . Similar to ‗negro‘ and ‗colored‘ in American English, these two once-standard terms have become pejorative - especially Neger, which was even branded as the German ‗N-word‘ by Susan Ardnt (2012: 653) -, while Schwarzer/ schwarz turned into the most acceptable term (Sow 2012b: 608) 10 . None of the nations which would eventually form Yugoslavia had any experience with colonialism in Africa, and prior to the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961 they had very limited direct contact with black people. 11 Consequently, the terminology for denoting black people in Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian and Slovenian is less rich in comparison to the languages of nations with different historical experiences. In 2001, Janja Prešern noted that the Slovenian terminology for black people was not clearly defined. Recent research on this issue has shown that the most frequently used negative Slovenian term for black people črnuh has been pejorative since at least the second part of the 19 th century; historically, the most frequently used terms were zamorec and črnec, but the former 1969) about African Americans (qtd. in Alston/ Dickerson 2009: 30): ―Bad ones are niggers and good ones are darkies.‖ 8 Changes in the connotative meaning occurred in the 1960s: while, for instance, Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X still used the term ‗negro‘ in their speeches, the younger generation of activists began to prefer ‗black‘, as is for instance evidenced by the ‗Black is Beautiful‘ movement. In 1969, a young African American even confronted the prominent writer James Baldwin for still using the term ‗negro‘; the latter responded as follows: It was not I, nor any black man in America who invented the word Negro. It was not I who wrote that on my birth certificate. […] I cannot change my vocabulary overnight. […] [W]e‘ve been called and call ourselves American Negroes, for all nearly 400 years. […] [Y]our generation, not mine, will call itself black. That‘s good enough for me, that‘s the whole point. My mother, my mother‘s mother, called herself a nigger. (n.d.: 5; cf. Guy 2005: 2). 9 From the 16 th to the 18 th century, the most frequently used term was Mohr, which later came to denote black people from northern Africa or light-skinned black people in general (Arndt/ Hamann 2012: 650; cf. Raeithel 2009: 101) but had fallen out of active use in this function by the middle of the 20 th century (cf. ‗moor‘ in English and zamorec in Slovenian). 10 Gert Raeithel notes that a decline in the use of Neger in the 1970s can be perceived (2009: 101). 11 More so than black people, Romani people (Urh 2014: 118-129) and Turkish people (Žigon 2013: 267-286) represent the ―Other‖ in Slovenia. The Significance of Racial Terms in Sinclair Lewis’s Kingsblood Royal 125 term gradually became pejorative in the 1950s, while the latter turned into the standard term, before itself being replaced by temnopolt towards the end of the century (see Trupej 2014c: 636-39). The historical development of the terminology for black people in Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian has not yet been investigated; therefore, for the purpose of this study, the connotative meaning of the relevant target-language terms was established solely with the help of appropriate dictionaries. 3. Defining racial terms in Kingsblood Royal From the opening chapters it becomes evident that the terms used to refer to African Americans will play an important role in the narrative; in a conversation between Neil Kingsblood and his wife Vestal, the (un)acceptability of some of the most frequently used racial terms is discussed 12 : [―]The lives and ideas of these niggers are certainly incomprehensible to our kind of people.‖ ―Neil, I think they like you to say ‗Negro,‘ not ‗nigger.‘‖ ―Okay, okay! Anything to oblige. These Negresses, then.‖ ―But Belfreda says that ‗Negress’ is the one word that you must never use.‖ ―Oh, for God's sake! Why are all these - uh - Negroes so touchy? What difference does it make what they‘re called? As I say: we don‘t know where Belfreda goes or what she does - rug-cutting or witchcraft or maybe she belongs to some colored leftwing political gang that‘s planning to take this house away from us. One thing is obvious: the whole biological and psychological make-up of the Negroes is different from that of white people, especially from us Anglo-Saxons (course I have some French blood, too). It‘s too bad, but you have to face facts and it‘s evident that the niggers - all right, the Negroes - don‘t quite belong to the same human race with you and me and Biddy.[‖] (Lewis 2001: 13-14; see Example 1) 13 In the German translation of this passage (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 16), the term ‗nigger‘ is transferred in its original form. 14 A shift with regard to 12 In citations, emphasis in bold has always been added by the author of the article; emphasis in italics was always already present in the text. 13 In the continuation of the article, the translation of a particular example will only be discussed in case a shift occurs. However, for the purpose of comparison, all three translations of a particular example are listed in the electronic attachment available at the web address listed under Footnote 6. 14 It needs to be noted that, while negative terms for black people certainly exist in German, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian, no term in those languages carries the connotations of discrimination, oppression and violence that the term ‗nigger‘ does in American English. Therefore, each and every translation of the term in question by default constitutes a decrease in offensiveness; this is a testament to the assertion that ―source language texts and items are more or less translatable rather than Janko Trupej 126 the acceptability of the term ‗negro‘ occurs in the second line, which reads: ―Neil, sie mögen es, glaube ich, nicht, wenn man sie Nigger oder Neger nennt.‖ By translating ‗not‘ as oder (meaning ‗or‘ in English), both Nigger and Neger are deemed unacceptable, instead of the former being defined as the unacceptable and the latter as the acceptable variant. All the remaining occurrences of ‗negro‘ in this passage are retained in their original form; the translator added the following footnote: ―‚Negro„ bezeichnet nicht nur den Schwarzen, den ‚Neger„, sondern auch jeden Abkömmling eines solchen ohne Rücksicht auf seine Hautfarbe.‖ 15 The fact that the term Schwarzer is not in quotation marks, while for the term Neger quotation marks were used further indicates that the translator considered the latter a pejorative term. Both instances of ‗negress‘ are retained in the original form in the translation, while the neutral term ‗colored‘ is translated as farbig, which was also considered neutral at the time of publication. In the Slovenian translation of the above passage (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 14-15), črnuh is consistently used for ‗nigger‘, while the term črnec is given as the neutral alternative to this racial slur. The third instance of the term ‗negro‘ in the passage is translated as zamorec, while in all other instances the translation of this term again reads as črnec. The term ‗negress‘ is translated as zamorklja, a negative term, while colored has no corresponding term in the Slovenian text; a deletion clearly occurred. In the Serbo-Croatian translation of the passage in question (Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 19), the terms ‗nigger‘ and ‗negro‘ are consistently translated as the pejorative term crnja and the neutral term crnac, respectively. The latter term also serves as the translation for ‗colored‘, while for the term ‗negress‘ the adjective garav is used; although this term can denote somebody with a dark complexion, it does not usually carry a negative connotation; the level of offensiveness is thereby reduced. From the first time that racial terminology is addressed in the narrative, the three target texts thus present quite different and at times inconsistent translation strategies. The various examples of shifts that occur in the translations will therefore be addressed in the continuation, and afterwards, the characteristics of each translator‘s strategy will be elaborated upon. absolutely translatable or untranslatable‖ (Catford 1965; qtd. in Fernández Dobao 2006: 224). 15 Translation: ―‗Negro‘ refers not only to black people, the ‗Neger‘, but also to their descendants, regardless of the colour of their skin.‖ All the translations/ backtranslations of citations not originally in English were made by the author of the article. The Significance of Racial Terms in Sinclair Lewis’s Kingsblood Royal 127 4. Shifts in translating racial terms in Kingsblood Royal 4.1 Addition On a few occasions, negative racial terms are added; however, this strategy is exclusive to the German translation. For instance, the translation of the sentence ―He looked now at Ash Davis, but he did not see a ‗Negro,‘ a ‗colored man‘.‖ (Lewis 2001: 78; see Example 2) reads: ―Aber wie er Ash Davis so ansah, erblickte er keinen „Nigger‟, keinen „Negro‟, keinen „Farbigen‟[…]‖ (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 84). The addition of the racial slur Nigger to the two neutral terms emphasizes the protagonist‘s change in attitude: after he becomes aware that he is part black himself, he gradually stops perceiving African Americans in a negative way. Further notable additions occur in a passage where the protagonist speaks to his new African American acquaintances but is unsure how to address them properly: ―What I wanted to ask - I don't quite know how to express it, but certain things have happened, and they make me feel that I ought to know you, uh -‖ ―'Negroes' is the word,‖ said John Woolcape. ―Or ‗colored people.‘ We don't mind either,‖ said his wife, and they were both suave about it and rather tolerant. ―What Mother means,‖ Emerson explained, ―is that we dislike both terms intensely, but we consider them slightly less ruffling than ‗nigger‘ or ‗coon‘ or ‗jig‘ or ‗spade‘ or ‗smoke‘ or any of the other labels by which white ditchdiggers indicate their superiority to Negro bishops. We expect it to take a few more decades before we're simply called ‗Americans‘ or ‗human beings.‘‖ (Lewis 2001: 99; see Example 3) Frank retained all five terms listed as offensive in the original, and added the terms Darky, Moke, Dinge, Boogie and Zigaboo, thereby defining ten instead of five terms (all of which are used in other parts of the narrative) as insulting to African Americans (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 106). 4.2 Deletion In the Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian translations, the opposite strategy was used for the passage above (Example 3); only three instead of five offensive terms are listed: crnčina, crnja and crnjan in the former (Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 113) and črnuh, črnavs and črnogelj in the latter (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 94). The majority of deletions in all three translations occur at the clause level; one such instance can be found in the German translation of the sentence ―Neil could not but chuckle at this darky malapropism.‖ (Lewis 2001: 83; see Example 4), which reads ―Neil konnte ein Lächeln über das falsch angewandte Fremdwort Janko Trupej 128 nicht unterdrücken.‖ 16 (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 90). One of the exceptions is the deletion of the whole sentence ―I'll bet some of 'em insist that Niggardly ought to be pronounced Negrodly.‖ (Lewis 2001: 201; see Example 5) in the Serbo-Croatian (Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 96) and Slovenian (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 79) translations 17 . However, the only instance of racial terms being deleted because of the deletion of whole passages can be found in the German translation: in a series of 25 passages describing white people‘s stereotypical perception of African Americans, four passages are deleted; two of them refer to black people‘s reputed sexual prowess (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Frank 1956: 180/ 192; see Example 6). 4.3 Increase in offensiveness Increasing the level of offensiveness is almost exclusively characteristic of the German translation 18 . For instance, in the translation of the sentence ―You got to fire that nigger tonight‖, the compound Niggeraas is used (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Frank 1956: 19/ 22; see Example 7); in this context, the term Aas can denote ‗bitch‘, ‗devil‘, ‗swine‘, etc. However, in most instances when this shift occurs, a neutral term is replaced with a pejorative one, e.g., using Nigra in the translation of the sentence ―Didn't you know I'm a Negro, too? ‖ (ibid.: 320/ 335; see Example 8) or Nigger in the translation of the sentence ―The name Sant Tabac was made from the initial letters in their slogan: ‗Stop all Negro trouble, take action before any comes.‘‖ (ibid.: 289/ 304; see Example 9). 4.4 Decrease in offensiveness In Kingsblood Royal, negative terms for black people are mostly used by white people. A notable exception is the following statement by the bootblack Wash about his granddaughter Belfreda Gray, Neil Kingsblood‘s maid: ―She sleeps with every no-count niggah in town. Can't do nothin' with these biggity young No'th'n niggahs, no suh! ‖ (Lewis 2001: 83; see Example 10). While the German translator used the terms Nigger and Nigga (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 89), in the Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian trans- 16 Translation: ―Neil could not suppress a smile at this misapplied loanword.‖ 17 Although the term ―niggardly‖ is not etymologically related to ‗nigger‘, its use has sparked some controversy in the 20 th century (Allan/ Burridge 2007: 102-104, 242; Hill 2008: 51). Unlike the other two translators, Frank did not avoid trying to find a suitable example of wordplay, and translated the sentence as follows: ―Sie verlangen womöglich noch, daß man den Niger-River in Afrika in „Negro-River‟ umtauft! ‖ [Perhaps they will even demand that the Niger River in Africa be renamed the ‗Negro River‘! ] (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 214). 18 The only exception is the Serbo-Croatian translation of ‗negro‘ as crnika (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 304/ 340). The Significance of Racial Terms in Sinclair Lewis’s Kingsblood Royal 129 lations this character does not use negative terms when referring to other African Americans, but neutral ones instead: crn and crnac (Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 95) and črnec (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 78). In some cases, the offensiveness is decreased in all three translations; for instance, in the translations of the sentence ―I always thought he looked like a light-complected darky‖ (Lewis 2001: 195; see Example 11): the term Farbiger is used in German (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 208), črnec in Slovenian (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 183) and crnac in Serbo-Croatian (Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 220). 4.5 Substitution with a pronoun Occasionally, the use of a racial slur was avoided by using a pronoun in replacement. For instance, the German translation of the sentence ―Those niggers are so dumb they'll believe it‖ reads ―Sie werden sehen, sie sind so dumm, daß sie drauf hereinfallen.‖ 19 (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Frank 1956: 75/ 81; see Example 12), while the Slovenian translation of the sentence ―I don't hate the shines.‖ reads ―Saj jih ne sovražim.‖ 20 (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Gra-dišnik 1952: 184/ 173; see Example 13). 4.6 Change of meaning In certain instances, racial terms were translated to mean something completely different from the source text. Such a shift occurs in all three translations of the sentence ―Yeh, why don't you can the zig? ‖ (Lewis 2001: 19; see Example 14). In the German translation, the term Bestie, meaning either ‗beast‘ or ‗animal‘, is used (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 22); in the Slovenian translation, the racial term is replaced by hudir, a variant of the term hudič, which denotes the devil (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 107); the Serbian translator opted for the term cigančura, which means ‗gypsy‘ (Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 130). A change of meaning also occurs in all three translations of the sentence ―The young spooks that would have taught Sunday school a generation ago are working for the N. Double-A C.P., and all the hot ones, that would have become hell-roaring deacons once, have joined the Communist Party‖ (Lewis 2001: 113; see Example 15): in the German translation, the term Funktionäre [‗functionaries‘ or ‗officials‘] is used (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 122), the racial term was translated as pusteži [‗bores‘ or ‗boring people‘] in Slovenian (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 107), while the Serbo-Croatian translation reads zanesenjaci [‗dreamers‘] (Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 130). 19 Translation: ―You‘ll see, they are so dumb that they‘ll fall for it.‖ 20 Translation: ―I don‘t hate them.‖ Janko Trupej 130 5. Comparison of translation strategies and their effects on the interpretive potential of Kingsblood Royal Frequent shifts are a common characteristic of all the translations: by our count, 166 shifts occur in the Serbo-Croatian, 103 in the Slovenian and 99 in the German translation. However, as Table 1 illustrates, different categories of shifts are most frequent across the translations: in both the Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian translations, the most common shift is a decrease in offensiveness, followed by deletion, whereas in the German translation, the latter category occurs most frequently, with the second most common shift being an increase in offensiveness 21 . Table 1: Shifts in translating racial terms in Kingsblood Royal Translation Deletion Decrease in Offensiveness Increase in Offensiveness 22 Change of meaning Substitution with a pronoun German 45 16 20 8 10 Slovenian 10 89 0 3 1 Serbo- Croatian 24 130 1 10 1 Furthermore, a substantial level of inconsistency is characteristic of all the translations; for the vast majority of the original racial terms, even for those with only a few occurrences, several different translations were used (see Appendix). For instance, for the term ‗negro‘, four different translation strategies were used in the Slovenian, five in the Serbo- Croatian and as many as 14 in the German translation. In the latter translation, inconsistencies exist even when this term is used in the same context. For example, in an interior monologue, the protagonist contemplates what it means to be black, using the neutral term ‗negro‘ 13 times in the original (Lewis 2001: 66-68); in the translation, the neutral term Negro is used five times, while the terms Neger and Negress are also used five and 21 However, in only 12 of the 45 instances is an offensive term deleted in the German text. 22 Additions of offensive terms were included in this category, since they essentially constitute an increase in offensiveness. The Significance of Racial Terms in Sinclair Lewis’s Kingsblood Royal 131 three times, respectively (Lewis/ Frank 1956: 60-62). In the Slovenian translation of this passage, the neutral term črnec is consistently used (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 58-59), while in the Serbo-Croatian translation, the term crnac is used twelve times and crn once (Lewis/ Ćurčija- Prodanović 1964: 71-73). Frank was similarly inconsistent with regard to the 13 instances of the collocation negro blood, for which he used the compound Negerblut seven times (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Frank 1956: 59/ 65, 70/ 75, 119/ 128, 142/ 152, 221/ 235, 238/ 252, 310/ 325) and Negro-Blut six times (ibid.: 165/ 177, 197/ 210, 201/ 214, 210/ 224, 211/ 225, 226/ 240). The Slovenian and Serbian translators were again more consistent: the former used črnska kri (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 59/ 57, 70/ 66, 119/ 113, 142/ 134, 165/ 156, 197/ 186, 201/ 189, 210/ 197, 211/ 198, 221/ 207, 226/ 213, 238/ 223, 310/ 290) and the latter crnačka krv (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 59/ 70, 70/ 81, 119/ 136, 142/ 162, 165/ 187, 197/ 222, 201/ 227, 210/ 237, 211/ 238, 221/ 248, 226/ 255, 238/ 267, 310/ 346). In the German translation, more than half the racial terms are transferred in their original form; on occasion, a foreign term different from the original is used. For instance, ‗Grand Army of the Negroes‘ is translated as Grande Armée des nègres (Lewis 2001, Lewis/ Frank 1956: 108/ 116), ‗Lady of Color‘ as Dame Darky (ibid.: 268/ 283), ‗colored boy‘ as Blackboy (ibid.: 68/ 74), ‗coons‘ as Smokes (ibid.: 213/ 226), etc. Frank even left the title and the initials of the ‗N.A.A.C.P. - the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People‘ in English (ibid.: 108/ 116), while Gradišnik and Ćurčija-Prodanović translated the title and changed the initials correspondingly (Lewis/ Gradišnik 1952: 102, Lewis/ Ćurčija-Prodanović 1964: 123). It is thus evident that the German text is - to use Lawrence Venuti‘s (1995) terminology - a foreignizing translation, while the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian texts are domesticating translations. As far as translation strategies are concerned, the number of offensive terms used in a particular translation is perhaps the most significant and has the most far-reaching consequences. By our count, 262 offensive terms for black people are used in the source text, while the number is lower in all the target texts: 234 offensive terms are used in the German, 161 in the Slovenian and 121 in the Serbo-Croatian translation 23 . In the latter two translations, the level of racist discourse is thereby significantly reduced, which may alter the interpretive potential of this narrative dealing with race-relations. Because racial slurs are used less frequently in the translations, the characterization of the protagonist is particularly affected and somewhat changed. He starts out as a racist member of the 23 The term Neger was not counted among the offensive terms, since it can be presumed that most of the readers in the 1950s did not perceive it as offensive, although it was defined as such by the translator, as noted in Chapter 3. Janko Trupej 132 white middle-class, and frequently uses racial slurs when referring to African Americans, but after he finds out and reveals that he has ‗black blood‘, he is himself subjected to the very racial slurs he had previously used, and has to face obstacles similar to those endured by African Americans in the pre-Civil Rights Movement era. However, because in the translations Neil Kingsblood uses racial slurs less frequently, he appears to be somewhat less racist; since the same is true for mid-western society in general, the amount of racial prejudice the protagonist has to face is also reduced, which diminishes his moral growth later on, when he completely changes his opinion about black people. Thus, it is evident that frequent shifts on the microstructural level caused a shift on the macrostructural level of the translated texts 24 . 6. Conclusion The analysis of translation of racial terms in Kingsblood Royal into German, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian is further evidence for the assertion that ―translation is a highly manipulative activity‖ (Bassnett/ Trivedi 2002: 2): in all three target texts, a plethora of shifts occurred. These were most frequent in the Serbo-Croatian translation, both with regard to the total number of shifts and in terms of the number of times that negative racial terms were omitted in translation: only 46% of the original negative terms were preserved, as compared to 61% in the Slovenian translation 25 . Since in this narrative racial slurs play an important role in establishing the relations between black and white Americans, the level of antagonism is somewhat reduced in both translations, which makes the protagonist‘s embrace of his heritage less meaningful. There are different possible explanations for the translation strategies into Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian. After a socialist regime was established in Yugoslavia in 1945, racism was deemed unacceptable by the government (see Trupej 2014a: 91-92); this is true even for the period before the African American Civil Rights Movement (which started in 1954) brought the issue of racism against African Americans to the attention of the international community, and before Yugoslavia became one 24 As Roger Sutton (1984; qtd. in Leonard/ Tenney 1992: 14) noted when commenting upon Mark Twain‘s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, in case of a ―softening of white bigotry […] readers can conclude that life wasn‘t so bad for blacks‖. 25 The fact that the offensiveness of the original racial slurs was reduced less often in the Slovenian than in the Serbo-Croatian translation goes against a common Slovenian belief that profane language is more acceptable in Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian than in Slovenian; many Slovenians believe that the lack of swearwords in Slovenian differentiates their language from the other ex-Yugoslav languages (Fras 2012: 229). This belief may be seen in the context of Slovenians wanting to distance themselves from the other nations which once formed Yugoslavia (see Žižek 2000: 601). The Significance of Racial Terms in Sinclair Lewis’s Kingsblood Royal 133 of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (1961), which strongly opposed racism. For instance, in a 1949 monograph on race, prominent Slovenian anthropologist Božo Škerlj declared that a person‘s race would be far less important in the future, ―ker socialistična družba priznava vsakega človeka, da je le res človek‖ 26 (1949: 55). Špela Urh goes as far as asserting that in socialist Yugoslavia talking about discrimination and social inequality was prohibited as it was believed that, under political rule in these countries, social justice and equality had been achieved. In this respect discussions regarding the status of minority ethnic communities was [sic] seen as unnecessary. (2014: 129) Such views led to ideological interventions in the translation of many literary works, even in some which actually denounce racism (see Trupej 2012, 2014a, 2015c) 27 . Furthermore, the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian translations were published a few years after the Tito-Stalin Split, at a time when relations between the United States and Yugoslavia were quite good (Pirjevec 2011: 299-308), which may have influenced the softening of the level of racism portrayed in Kingsblood Royal 28 . With regard to the translation into Slovenian, a further possible factor may have been the status of the language: it played an important role in the establishment of Slovenian national identity (Jerman 1993: 13; Poniž 2002: 86); therefore, a high register was traditionally expected in written discourse (Hladnik 1983: 61; cf. Zlatnar Moe 2004: 223; Čerče 2012: 189; Onič 2013: 249; Trupej 2015b: 25; Udovič 2016: 381). The German translation is substantially different: the majority of slurs are preserved, sometimes offensive terms are used for neutral original terms, and on a few occasions slurs are even added: in total, only 11% fewer negative terms than in the original are used, and the interpretive potential is thereby preserved to a greater extent. The intensification of racist discourse in certain passages can perhaps be explained with the help of the translator‘s habitus (Simeoni 1998): Frank was Jewish and had thus experienced racism during the period of National Socialism, which might have led him to highlight discrimination against African Americans - an issue still largely unresolved in a post-World War II world. 26 Translation: ―[…] since a socialist society gives every human being his due, as long as he really is a human being.‖ 27 Changes in the Slovenian reception of literary translations addressing racism were also established (see Trupej 2015a). 28 In contrast, during the time that Yugoslavia and the United States were at odds, racism was intensified in a 1948 Slovenian translation of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Trupej 2012: 97-101; Trupej 2014a: 98-99). 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Appendix Original term German translation Serbo-Croatian translation Slovenian translation negro (449×) 288×Negro 99×Neger 23×Schwarzer/ schw arz 7×Farbiger/ farbig 4×Nigger 4×Negress 1×äthiopisch 1×negre 1×dunkel 1×Nigra 4×pronoun 8×deletion on the sentence level 3×deletion of the sentence 5×deletion of the passage 443×crn/ -ac 1×afrički (289/ 323) 1×crnika (304/ 340) 3×deletion on the sentence level 1×deletion of the sentence 421×črn/ -ec 25×zamorec 1×temen človek 2×deletion of the sentence colored/ cullud (208×) 172×Farbiger/ farbig 14×coloured 4×Schwarzer/ schwarz 2×Nigger 1×black 1×gebräunt 1×Darky 1×koloriert 2×pronoun 3×change of meaning (misch-, Farbe (2×)) 7×deletion on the sentence level 160×crn/ -ac 41×obojeni 7×deletion on the sentence level 105×temnopolt 87×črn/ -ec 12×zamorec 1×obarvan 1×barvast 2×deletion on the sentence level nigger/ niggah (154×) 143×Nigger 3×schwarz 1×Niggeraas 2×pronoun 1×change of meaning (Octeron) 4×deletion on the sentence level 60×crn/ -ac 26×crnja 20×crnče 12×crnika 10×crnjan 9×crni đavo/ -lo 6×Crni 4×crnčina 4×crnjo 2×crljan 1×deletion on the sentence level 107×črnuh 17×črnavs 11×zamorec 8×črn/ -ec 4×črnoba 2×zamorklja 1×črnjak 1×črnklja 1×črnogica 2×deletion of the sentence black (127×) 116×Schwarzer/ schwarz 118×crn/ -ac 2×taman 124×črn/ -ec 1×zamorec Janko Trupej 138 2×dunkel 1×Neger 1×black 6×deletion on the sentence level 1×deletion of the passage 1×change of meaning (grmalj) 6×deletion on the sentence level 1×temen 1×deletion on the sentence level darky (41×) 31×Darky 2×Schwarzer 2×dunkel 1×Negro 1×Farbiger 1×Nigger 1×pronoun 2×deletion on the sentence level 37×crn/ -ac 2×crnja 1×change of meaning (poreklo) 1×deletion on the sentence level 26×zamorec 10×črnec 1×črnokožec 1×črnavs 1×zamorček 1×temnopolti 1×temen nigra (17×) 11×Nigra 1×Neger 1×Negro 1×farbig 1×pronoun 1×deletion on the sentence level 1×deletion of the passage 11×crn/ -ac 2×crnja 1×crni đavo 1×crnic 1×crnjo 1×crnjan 8×zamorec 4×črnavs 2×črnec 2×črnuh 1×črnjavski coon (11×) 9×Coon 1×Darky 1×Smoke 7×crn/ -ac 2×crnja 2×crnika 4×zamorec 4×črn/ -ec 1×črnavs 1×zamorklja 1×črnogelj brownskin (10×) 8×Braunhaut/ braun häutig 1×gebräunt 1×deletion on the sentence level 3×crnokožac 3×crnac 2×tamne kože 1×crnpurast 1×deletion on the sentence level 3×rjavokožec 3×črnec 2×rjavopoltni 1×rjave polti 1×zamorec dinge (7×) 2×Darky/ Darkie 1×Dunkel 1×Negress 1×Schwarzer 1×Smoke 1×Dinge 2×crnac 1×crnika 1×crnja 1×crnjo 1×crnčina 1×change of meaning (gadura) 3×zamorec 2×črnogelj 1×temnopolt 1×črnoba Ethiopian (6×) 4×Äthiopier/ äthiopisch 2×deletion on the sentence level 5×Etiopljan/ -in 1×change of meaning (episkopski) 4×Etiopec 2×črnec (zig)aboo (5×) 2×Zigaboo 1×Jig 2×change of meaning (Zigeuner, Bestie) 1×crnac 1×crni đavolo 1×crnja 2×change of meaning (cigančura) 1×črnavs 1×zamorklja 1×črnogelj 1×zamorec 1×change of meaning (hudir) jimcrow (4×) 4×Jim Crow 3×crnac 1×change of meaning (poseban) 3×črnec 1×deletion on the sentence level negress (4×) 3×Negress 1×Neger 2×crnkinja 2×garav 2×zamorklja 2×zamorka smoke (4×) 3×Smoke 1×deletion on the sentence level 1×crnac 1×garavi 1×pronoun 2×črnavs 1×zamorec 1×deletion on the sentence level The Significance of Racial Terms in Sinclair Lewis’s Kingsblood Royal 139 1×deletion on the sentence level mulatto (4×) 4×Mulatte 3×mulat 1×melez 3×mulat 1×mešanec shine (3×) 1×Coon 1×change of meaning (Stiefelpützer) 1×deletion on the sentence level 1×crnja 1×najcrniji gad 1×crnac 2×zamorec 1×pronoun moke (3×) 1×Moke 1×Smoke 1×deletion of the passage 2×crnja 1×change of meaning (vucibatina) 1×črnavselj 1×črnogelj 1×črnuh jig (3×) 2×Jig 1×Nigger 1×crnjan 1×crnac 1×deletion on the sentence level 1×črnogelj 1×črnavs 1×črnec spook (2×) 1×Smoke 1×change of meaning (Funktionär) 1×crnac 1×change of meaning (zanesenjak) 1×črnec 1×change of meaning (pustež) pickaninny (2×) 1×Neger 1×piccaninniny 1×crnče 1×change of meaning (čupavac) 1×zamorček 1×change of meaning (razkuštranec) boogie (2×) 1×Schwarzer 1×Boogie 1×crnjan 1×deletion on the sentence level 1×črnavs 1×črnogelj octoroon (2×) 2×Octeron 1×melez 1×sa osminom crnačke krvi 1×osminarka 1×eno osmino črnka Afro-American (1×) 1×Afro-Amerikaner 1×Afro-Amerikanac 1×Afro-Američani spade (1×) 1×Spade 1×deletion on the sentence level 1×deletion on the sentence level tar-baby (1×) 1×deletion on the sentence level 1×ofarbano luče 1×katranast Janko Trupej Faculty of Arts University of Maribor